Typologies

Creative Clusters are agglomerations of production, distribution and/or consumption activities in a relatively concentrated space. It is usually claimed that clusters encourage:

- transfer of tacit knowledge through informal learning

- efficient sourcing skills and information

- competition-collaboration of complementary business producing learning and efficiency effects

- development of inter-cluster trading, networking and joint projects

- delivery of common services – from utilities (internet, telephone) to business support, training and industry events

- (in china especially): allow targeted application of industry development policies

- cross-subsity or government support allows cheaper rents or other benefits for small companies and entrepreneurs

- inspiration by proximity

- common branding and identification

- the contribution to and benefit from a nearby ‘innovative urban milieu’

(See also: Cluster Theory)

The Chinese element of this project takes government designated clusters as its starting point. For various reasons historically ‘organic’ clusters have been few and mostly restricted to ‘artists’. However, within this there are a number of different types of clusters, coming from different initiatives and aiming at different functions.

Typology by policy trajectory

In ‘Great adaptations: China’s creative clusters and the new social contract’ (Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies), Keane identified 6 types of clusters in China. In part this is an historical account of the emergence of clusters. However, there is also an evaluation scheme based on: the nature of the mix and interactions within the cluster around learning effects; the servicing of tourist commodity markets rather than innovative products (over-commercialization; loss of ‘authenticity’); the rising of rents and land value with deleterious effects on both the reduction of mix and consumption businesses driving out production.

These concerns are quite similar to those in Australia (and elsewhere) though the specific mechanisms of this are very different.

1. Specialist agglomeration: e.g. spaces dedicated to industrial design, antiques, jewelry, animation, painting and sculpture. Designated industry clusters. Many situated in disused industrial spaces. Aim: providing resources and a workspace for people with similar skills. (for example: artists villages set up to mass produce oil paintings, or sculpture production parks)
2. Artist zones and cultural districts: essentially organic developments combining strong tourist pull with consumer services. Certain districts within large cities provided a milieu in which artists and media workers could enjoy a greater sense of freedom to express themselves. Situated close to art collages, galleries and media schools, and with historical legacies, these districts attracted international designers, writers and artists, which also produced an informal economy of coffee, pasta and local beer. Such as Nanluoguxiang (Beijing), Songzhuang art district (beijing) and Tianzifang (Shanghai).
3. Related Variety model: artists and media producers use renovated factory space. The key difference with the specialist cluster mentioned above is a mix of small enterprises specializing in design, media production, fashion, painting, photography and sculpture. Now the default setting for local governments keen to exploit the link between art and tourism. Such as Caochangdi (Beijing: emergent art space, absorbing spillovers from 798), Xinghai Creative Island (Dalian), Creative 100 (Qingdao), 1933, No. 8 Bridge, Tianzifang, etc. (shanghai), Loft 49 and A8 art commune (Hangzhou), 1912 and Creative East No. 8 district (Nanjing), No. 6 Warehouse, the Hualun Creative factory and Lingao Creative Industrial Park (Tianjin), OCT Loft, F518 Creative fashion park (Shenzhen), Tank Loft (Chongqing), Foshan Cultural Creative Park (Guangdong). Problem: gentrification (rent and land value rises, displacement of existing population); business-model based on recreational add-ons (bars, massage, book and souvenir shops). More about production and sale of tourist commodities than networks of interaction and learning. High commercial orientation leads to competition for markets not co-operation in learning. ‘Crass commercialization and loss of authenticity’.
4. Media content clusters within existing industrial zones: notably animation, mostly concentrating on outsourcing. ‘Base’ for production of global content. There are at least 17 national bases in China: Shanghai, Beijing, Hangzhou, Suzhou, Shenzhen, Dalian, Suzhou, Changzhou and Wuxi. Local governments offer a range of industry sweeteners: preferential policies enabling startup firms to enjoy tax holidays, to obtain housing and educational services for employees and their children, as well as financial incentives if content is successful. In the main, content purchased by CCTV.
5. Stand-alone cinema and television production centres: servicing the domestic audio-visual market, engaging in co-productions, or outsourcing production from Taiwan, Korea and USA. To compensate for the cyclical nature of audio-visual production, these centres offer a theme park function. Such as Huairou Film production centre (North of Beijing), Hengdian World Studio (Zhejiang province).
6. Incubator model: with emphasis on R&D, and often with the declared intention of marking science parks more ‘creative’. The proximity of many science and technology (ST) parks, also called innovation parks, to prestigious universities and development zones reflects desire to incubate something beyond standard products. Such as: The Ideas Industry Centre (Chongqing), the Heping District Creative Animation Park (Tianjin), the Taida Science and Technology Park (Tianjin), the Creative Incubator Garden (Dalian), the Hangzhou Innovation and Creative Industry New Base (Hangzhou), Zhongguancun Creative Industries Pioneer Base (Beijing), Zhangjiang Hi-Tech zone (Shanghai) and Knowledge Innovation Community (Shanghai). Problem: Many existing ST parks are hardly innovative. Industrial parks are regarded by government as infrastructural, a means to attract enterprises from outside. In contracts, the industrial cluster, or the creative cluster model, is about enabling a learning economy within.

See also: Shanghai Mapping

Typologies of Clusters: Mapping Indicators

1. Lead function/identity: For the purposes of mapping, the clusters could be identified as having a lead function. In some cases – often industrial design – this is straightforward, in others more difficult. We can find some broad categories. Fashion, art, design and architecture, new media, advertising and marketing. There might not always be a clear lead function – in which case ‘mixed’ might be a useful category.
2. Retail and leisure offer: Another clear typology for mapping is whether they have a strong retail offer and /or strong leisure (bar, restaurants) offer. This also might be clear from the websites found on the cluster map.
3. Date of Creation: This could be banded into early (pre-2006 – like M50), 2006-08; 2008-10; emergent
4. Ownership: a final category is more difficult to get at. See also: chinese cluster, in which I outlined 4 categories: (local) government owned and instigated; state owned Enterprise owned (Such as Shanghai Textile Group); Private initiative; Grassroots/organic (though might be Gov/private landlord(s))

Mapping the clusters in urban context

Urban clusters raise three central questions in addition to the learning/collaboration effects:

- the Cluster as interaction centres attracting smaller innovation / entrepreneurial players driving for a creative industries sector

- clusters as key urban sites linking these learning / creativity/interaction effects to the creation of place identity; and

- the role of clusters in providing services and stimulation to the dispersed urban creative milieu

These will be discussed more in evaluation, but to progress this we could map clusters against:

1. cultural districts – performing arts, galleries, museums, music venues, (bookshops?) In shanghai these would be e.g. in the French concession, near the Theatre academy, or around People’s Square, or in Pudong;
2. Enterprise districts – areas of night time activity aimed at richer local and foreign consumers. Both of these could be done from a what’s on guide (in Shanghai: Urban Anatomy)

These could be acquired from the various on-line Shanghai guides – and we have some hard copy ones (e.g. Urban Anatomy). These guides are often organized around districts and the main areas of culture/entertainment (via rough guides/lonely planet and our local knowledge) can be identified as districts within which clusters might be located or as points for correlation.